Balkh

A small town today and for the most part a mass of ruins, the ancient city of Balkh was once the centre of Zoroastrianism, Buddhism and the capital of the Greek Empire in Northern Afghanistan. The city owed its importance to its position at the crossing of major routes from Iran to Central Asia, China and through the mountains of Central Afghanistan, to North-Western India.

Arab conquests of Balkh: Since the Arab conquest of Balkh in 1st AH / 7th CE century, the city faced constant military invasions by Arab dynasties. Balkh was first captured in 24 AH / 645 CE,  during the reign of Caliph Uthman. The Muslim control, however, remained tenuous. In 43 AH / 663 CE, the Umayyads occupied Balkh (under Mu‘awiya) which led to several local revolts against their establishment. 

In 50-51 AH / 670-671 CE, the local prince Nazak (or Nazik), a fervent Buddhist, led a successful expulsion of the Umayyads. However, following his death and the murder of his son, the city fell into the hands of the Arab general of Khurasan in 86 AH / 705 CE, who lost it to the Abbasids in 130 / 747 CE. 

Balkh was attacked again in 206 AH / 821 CE, this time by Tahirids. The city subsequently, saw several military expeditions: by Saffarids in 256 AH / 870 CE, Samanids in the early 5th AH / 10th CE century, the Ghaznavids in 387 AH / 997 CE, Karakhanids in 397 AH / 1006 CE, again by Ghaznavids in 399 AH / 1008 CE, and finally by the Seljuks in 451 / 1059 CE. The city still saw irregular occupation and looting by Oghuz Turks during the Seljuk reign. Accounts of travellers from the 10th century CE indicate that the city was ringed by earthen walls with six gates, within which were a citadel and a mosque. The traces of Balkh’s earthen walls can still be seen today, over a length of some 10 kilometres.

Upon the death of Seljuk Sultan Sanjar, the city was seized by Khwarzamshah’s forces in 557 AH / 1162 CE. They lost it only three years later to Kara Khitan’s forces in 560  AH / 1165 CE. From the Kara Kitans, Balkh fell in the hands of Ghurids in 594 AH / 1198 CE.Khwarzamshah once again gained control of the city in 603 AH / 1206 CE. Six years later, the city saw brutal massacre at the hands of Mongols, and then again in the 8th AH / 14th century by Timurids. 

Balkh from 16th CE century onwards: Uzbeks entered Balkh in the early 16th century. They were briefly driven away by the Safavids, after which the city fell to Mughals from India who ruled the city. The Mughals lost Balkh to Afghan Amirs in  mid-12th AH / mid-18th century. A hundred years later, in the mid-19th century, the city suffered an outbreak of malaria and lost its administrative status to the neighbouring city of Mazar-e Sharif, which continues to be the regional capital to-date. 

Notable Muslims from Balkh: Balkh was notably a distinguished centre for education and learning in 4th AH / 11th CE century. Balkh was the hometown of the well-known philosopher and scientist Ibn Sina (b. 370 AH / 980 CE) as well as of the distinguished Persian poet and the author of the epic Persian poem Shahnama (Book of Kings), al-Ferdowsi (b. 328 AH / 940 CE). Nasir-i Khusraw was also born in Balkh in 394 AH / 1004 CE. The reputation of Balkh as a place of learning persisted over centuries as the city’s educational establishments continued to be reputable well into the 6th AH /12th CE century. The city also served as an important trading centre during these centuries. Despite the Mongol and Timurid massacres of Balkh, the 13th century Italian merchant and traveller, Marco Polo, referred to Balkh as a “noble and great city”. 

Archaeology of Balkh: Outside the walled city enclosure, ruins of the Buddhist period buildings still seem to stand proud, and have proven to appear more durable than those of the Islamic era. The remains of Takht-i Rustam, the monastery of Nau Bahar and the associated stupa of Tepe Rustam correspond with the 7th century CE visitors’ accounts which record existence of a significant number of Buddhist monasteries, stupas and other monuments in the city. 

To the North-East of Balkh lie traces of a large caravanserai with its extensive gardens. Some 3 kilometres to the south is the mosque of Haji Piyada, a Samanid-style building, dating from the second half of the 5th AH / 9th CE century. The piers and springing of the arches retain fine decorated brick and stucco work that are stylistically similar to Abbasid decorative work found in Mesopotamia.

Citation:

“City of Balkh”. UNESCO World Heritage Centre Website. http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1928/ [accessed July 2013]