Jerusalem

Jerusalem is a site of great religious significance in Muslim, Christian and Jewish tradition. Muslims know Jerusalem as the city of the prophets and the place of Prophet Muhammad's night journey, and therefore regard it as the third holiest shrine and the second most important place of pilgrimage after Mecca. The significance of Jerusalem in the Jewish tradition is due to the temple built by Solomon in the l0th BCE century, and in Christianity as the place of reverance for crucifiction and resurrection of Christ. 

The first walled-town on the site dates from the Middle Bronze Age (1800 BCE). The earliest literary reference is also from the same period when the city is mentioned as one of the enemies of Egypt. The main source for the subsequent history of the city is the Old Testament which describes its capture from the Jebusites (a tribe) under David, and the building of the temple under Solomon.

Jerusalem during the Roman period: In 70 CE the Romans destroyed the city in response to the Jewish Great Revolt. The site lay uninhabited for the next seventy-five years until the emperor Hadrian founded a new city known as Aelia Capitolina. Jews were specifically excluded from this new city and the area of the Temple was left undeveloped (and remained so until the Arab conquest). The layout of the present Old City of Jerusalem is approximately the same as that of the Roman town.

Jerusalem during the Byzantine rule: In 324 CE Palestine became part of the Christian Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) and emperor Constantine founded the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in 325–6 CE. A cartographic depiction of the city in the Madaba Mosaic in present-day Jordan shows the church in the sixth century before the Muslim conquest. From 614 to 629 CE the city was in the possession of the Sassanids under Chosroes II, who destroyed many Christian buildings. In 5 AH / 629 CE the city was recaptured by the Byzantines under Heraclius only to be conquered by the Muslim Arab armies ten years later. For the following 1,200 years (with the exception of the Crusader occupation) Jerusalem developed as a major Muslim city ableit never as a commercial or administrative centre.

Development of Jerusalem during Muslim rule: The development of Jerusalem under Muslim rule can be divided into four main periods: (i) the early Islamic period from the Arab conquest to the first Crusade, (ii) the Crusader period, (iii) the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods and (iv) the Ottoman period.

i. Jerusalem during the early Islamic Period: During the early Islamic period the area of the Temple Mount (Haram al-Sharif) was developed for the first time since Hadrian's destruction in 70 CE. The first mosque known to have been built in Jerusalem was erected by the caliph 'Umar. However, nothing of this early structure remains. The earliest surviving structure in the city is the Dome of the Rock built by the caliph Abd al-Malik in 72 AH / 691 CE. This mosque is a large, domed octagonal structure built over the bare rock of the Temple platform, below which is a cave. 

To the south of the Dome of the Rock is the al-Aqsa Mosque which may have been started under Abd al-Malik (r. 66-86 AH / 685-705 CE) although most of the construction was carried out under his successor al-Walid (r. 86-97 AH / 705-715 CE). The mosque has been rebuilt several times although it is believed that the present structure maintains the basic layout of al-Walid's mosque. Excavations to the south of the Haram have revealed a large Umayyad palace located at the back of the al-Aqsa Mosque. This follows the pattern established at other early Muslim cities such as Kufa, where the royal palace Dar al-Imara is placed behind the mihrab.

ii. Jersalem during the Crusader period: The capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders in 492 AH / 1099 CE marked an abrupt end to the four-and-a-half centuries of Muslim rule. The Crusader occupation completely changed the character of the city. The Muslim inhabitants either fled or were killed or sold for ransom. Even most of the Christian inhabitants fled and the Crusaders faced problems repopulating the city.

The Crusaders rebuilt Christian churches and monuments and converted buildings of Muslims to other uses. Thus the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was expanded by adding a Romanesque transept to the east side of the rotunda. Elsewhere in the city over sixty churches were built or renovated, whereas mosques were converted into churches. The Dome of the Rock was handed to the Augustinians who turned it into a church and in 497 AH / 1104 CE. Baldwin I, who was among the leaders of the first crusade, converted the Aqsa Mosque into a royal palace.

iii. Jerusalem during Ayyubid and Mamluk rule:  In 583 AH / 1188 CE Jerusalem was recaptured by Salah al-Din Ayyubi who converted it again into a Muslim city. The Haram was cleared of the Christian accretions and re-consecrated as a Muslim sanctuary. The cross was removed from the top of the Dome of the Rock and replaced with a golden crescent, and a wooden screen was placed around the rock below. Also, at this time, the famous wooden minbar of Salah al-Din was placed next to the new mihrab in the Aqsa Mosque. In the later Ayyubid period (first half of the 7th AH / 13th CE century) Jerusalem again beacme subjected to invasions, first by the Crusaders and later by the Khwarzmian Turks. Hence no substantial building work was carried out during this period.

The Mamluk period lasted from 647 to 922 AH / 1250 to 1516 CE and provided Jerusalem with some of its most beautiful and distinctive architecture. Over sixty-four major monuments survive from this period and testify to the city's wealth and confidence. The Haram in particular received a great deal of attention from the Mamluk sultans who regarded the patronage of building in this area as a royal prerogative. During this period the walls of Haram al-Sharif were repaired and the interior of the west-wall was provided with an arcaded portico. Several major buildings were also built within the Haram. 

iv. Jerusalem during Ottoman rule: One of the best known buildings of Jerusalem is the Damascus Gate that forms part of the city wall erected by Suleyman the Magnificent between 944 and 947 AH / 1538 and 1541 CE. This was one of the many building projects that begun in Jerusalem. The city's infrastructure was renewed considerably to demonstrate that Jerusalem was now part of the Ottoman Empire. During Suleyman's reign, the population of Jerusalem increased by three hundred percent. A number of inscriptions refer to repairs and rebuilding in Jerusalem during the late Ottoman period. 

Jerusalem in the 19th Century: In 1831 the Egyptian general Ibrahim Pasha conquered Jerusalem. The Ottomans recaptured the city in 1840 and alleviated the restrictions imposed on the non-Muslims by the Pasha regime. Many important Christian buildings and institutions were erected both inside and outside the old city. The improved living conditions (albeit still hard) induced many religious persons to settle in Jerusalem. By the late 19th century many Jewish settlements could be found in Jerusalem. New suburbs grew up around the old city and an increased European influence in the architecture could be observed. 

Citation:

Peterson, Andrew. Jerusalem (al-Quds), Dictionary of Islamic Architecture (London ; New York: Routledge, 2002).